Institut für Landwirtschaftliche Betriebslehre

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Agrarökonomische Analyse von Verfahren zur Erzeugung lignozellulosehaltiger Biomasse und deren Akzeptanz in der Landwirtschaft Baden-Württembergs
(2018) Gillich, Caroline Sophie-Theresia; Lippert, Christian
In a future bio-based economy, agricultural production of renewable raw materials for the production of plant biomass is supposed to play a central role. This also includes the perennial crops short rotation coppice (SRC) and miscanthus. A material utilization, particularly of the produced lignocellulose, in chemical industry can contribute to a bio-based economic activity. However, the cultivation of SRC and miscanthus is not yet widespread. For a variety of reasons, such as lack of knowledge or low profitability, farmers have not strongly implemented these crops so far. To find out, which factors do have an impact on the cultivation of SRC and miscanthus, farmer workshops with surveys were conducted in selected regions of Baden-Wuerttemberg. Additionally, by means of a choice experiment, the preferences of the farmers for the cultivation of SRC and miscanthus were elicited. As the introduction of new production methods is often linked to increased risks, in addition the risk attitude of the farmers was determined by means of a “Holt and Laury” lottery. The surveys took place in the Vergleichsgebietsgruppen (VGG) „Unterland / Gaeue“, „Rhine / Lake Constance“ and „Bauland / Hohenlohe“ in Baden-Wuerttemberg. For all VGG site specific profitability and risk analyses were performed. The mentioned VGG were identified as most suitable for SRC and miscanthus. In total, 117 farmers participated in nine organized workshops. In the surveyed sample more farmers are cultivating SRC than in the entire farmer population. For the analysis of the choice experiment Random Parameter Logit Models were used. The following results are to be interpreted under ceteris paribus conditions. Generally, the part-worth utility of the cultivation of SRC and miscanthus is negative. Additionally to the opportunity costs of land, the expected average compensation payments amount to € 460 and € 400 per hectare and year for SRC and miscanthus. However, in this context farmers do not significantly distinguish between the two perennial crops. As expected an increasing profitability of these production activities increases the utility, whereas an increasing variability of contribution margins and increasing investment costs reduce the utility. It should be noted that a guaranteed purchase contract for the harvested crop over the whole cultivation period increases the utility of the permanent crops at a significant level. Through this the negative part-worth utility of SRC or miscanthus could be compensated almost completely. If colleagues in the near surrounding already cultivate these crops, this also increases the utility. Among the respondents a significant preference heterogeneity exists for both production activities and all attributes considered in the choice experiment. Further model estimations with interaction terms to explain part of the heterogeneity show that, among other things, an increasing farm size has a negative impact on the probability of cultivating SRC. An increasing age of the farm manager also reduces the utility of the cultivation of SRC and miscanthus. An increasing work experience has a positive effect on the probability of choosing SRC. Moreover, an increase of the initial investment cost reduces the utility of the participants the more, the more risk averse they are. In this context, the implicitly assumed interest rates, deduced from the model and assuming a farmer with average risk attitude, are in a realistic range between 2.3 % and 4.1 %. Based on the estimated part-worth utility distribution parameters of the model without interaction terms, finally supply functions were derived by means of Monte Carlo simulations, to illustrate cultivation potentials of SRC and miscanthus at various wood chip prices and for different scenarios. The potentials of SRC and miscanthus estimated this way are more realistic than former GIS-based potentials as not only location factors but also empirically found preferences of the farmers and opportunity costs of farmland were taken into account. Under the assumptions made, the maximum expectable potential of SRC and miscanthus on arable land in the surveyed region amounts in each case to 30,000 hectares. It should be noticed, that this cultivation potential is relatively low. The results of the choice experiment show that - as long as this is considered to be justified from an economic point of view - either a direct subsidy by the government, the cultivation in clusters or purchase guarantees for the farmers by the processing industry can strongly promote the cultivation of perennial lignocellulose containing crops.
Agriculture as emission source and carbon sink : economic-ecological modelling for the EU-15
(2010) Blank, Daniel; Zeddies, Jürgen
The thesis develops and applies analytical tools to describe economic and ecological impacts of greenhouse gas mitigation strategies in European agriculture. Agriculture is widely perceived as emission source, but actually it can also act as emission sink by sequestration of atmospheric carbon to agricultural soils. Thereby, soil carbon pools potentially store twice as much carbon as contained in the atmosphere. In view of this circumstance, the study analysed agricultural emission sources and mitigation scenarios in the area of conservation tillage and bio-energy production. The analysis was within a mixed-integer programming model optimizing total gross margins of typical farms of NUTS-II-regions in the EU-15. For this micro-economic analysis high quality region specific cost estimates for main agricultural products were indispensible. Thereby a new approach was developed that draws European accountancy data and German engineering cost data. The first dataset comprises of up-to-date crop-unspecific cost data as indicated by European bookkeeping farms. The second comprises of crop specific cost data from German farms. Through a combination of both datasets crop specific estimates of production costs on regional level for the EU-15 evolved. Another study that starts from accountancy data to deduct product cost estimates is currently funded by the European Commission (Farm Accountancy Cost Estimation and Policy Analysis of European Agriculture). By monetarizing greenhouse gas emissions, the Kyoto-Protocol has increased the demand for economic-ecological models to analyse emission scenarios. The study model, EU-EFEM, integrates biophysical data to site-specifically simulate soil carbon dynamics in terms of the mitigation scenario ?conservational tillage?. This approach provides a level of detail that is significantly superior to the one achieved by soil emission factors specified only to global climate zones, a few soil types, and soil management alternatives like provided by the global standard work for the calculation of greenhouse gas emissions, the guidelines of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). The biophysical data was integrated from the EPIC-model to which an interface was established. In the analysis of the agricultural sink function increased input of organic matter, crop rotational modifications, and conservational tillage were assessed. A first scenario that could be monitored relatively easily forces minimum shares of conservational tillage per farm. It was shown that all farms in the EU-15 could comply even with a forced share of 100%. But on average, shares exceeding 80% entail economic losses, basically because of the incompatibility of certain current crop rotations with conservational tillage. Against the average loss of 20 ?/ha in case of 100% of forced conservational tillage, stand single farms facing a loss of 350 ?/ha. Simultaneously soil carbon accumulation remained at marginal levels. In another scenario that directly forces soil carbon accumulation while leaving the choice of the appropriate means to farmers, an accumulation of 181 million tCO2e was achieved. This value corresponds to a forced accumulation of 1.0 t C/ha, a rate out of reach for 25 out of all analysed NUTS-II-regions. Mitigation costs are at 70 ?/tCO2e in this case, but at 10 ?/tCO2e only if only those regions are considered in which the minimum accumulation rates can be achieved. The latter is a competitive value compared to current values of EU traded emission rights. Policy, however, should withdraw from a regulation forcing minimum SOC-accumulation. Main reasons are the difficult monitoring, which would be required on site level, and the absence of a success guarantee on side of farmers for taken measures. Designing effective political instruments, the humus balance as stipulated in the Cross-Compliance regulation of the reformed AGENDA 2000 represents a prefect starting point. The study also analyzed agricultural biogas production with electricity recovery in a combined heat and power (CHP) unit and different (waste) heat utilization rates. European agriculture could increase annual profits by 1.6 to 9.2 billion ? depending mainly on waste heat utilization rate. In the best case, the contribution to climate change mitigation is 263 Mill tCO2e while realising a mitigation gain of 5 ?/tCO2e when excluding subsidies comprised in the feed-in tariff. Being an issue in any discussion about agricultural bio-energy production, the study also analyses the competition for agricultural land with food and feed production. Tapping the full agricultural biogas production potential, 28.7% of grassland and 18.5% of arable land would be bound, although the study constrains biogas production to co-fermentation with manure. The impacts of this competition on agricultural prices could not be analysed in this study, since the applied model is a farm model and not a market equilibrium model. By means of literature research, however, it was concluded that subsidies of biogas production should focus on promoting the fermentation of manure and the utilization of waste heat in order to limit area competition and not to promote the utilization of cultivated biomass.
Agro-economic policy analysis with the regional production model ACRE : a case study for Baden-Wuerttemberg
(2011) Henseler, Martin; Dabbert, Stephan
Since its introduction the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) of the European Union (EU) has undergone several reforms in order to adapt policy instruments and enable the agricultural sector to fulfil multiple functions with respect to economic, supply and environmental objectives. In the German federal state Baden-Wuerttemberg agricultural production is characterized by regional heterogeneity. Therefore it is important to estimate the impacts resulting from changes in the CAP at a detailed regional level. In this study the agricultural policy model ACRE (Agro-eConomic pRoduction model at rEgional level) has been used to simulate different policy scenarios and to analyze regional economic, production and environmental impacts. In particular the study aims to address the following research questions: What are the regional impacts of different policy measures in the German federal state Baden-Wuerttemberg with respect to economic, production and environmental objectives? How suitable are the simulated policy measures for achieving the policy objectives of the CAP 2003 reform, as well as the objectives of subsidy reduction, promotion of energy crop production, reduction of environmental pollution and promotion of agro-environmental measures? How suitable is the regional supply model ACRE as a tool for policy analysis and policy decision support? In order to address the research questions, ACRE has been updated, adapted and extended to simulate agricultural production in the federal state Baden-Wuerttemberg at NUTS3 level. The policy scenarios simulated in this study are defined to cover recent discussions on the future development of the CAP and their results are analysed according to a regional framework for NUTS3 counties, farm types and the complete model region. The simulation of the reference year (REF) implies the policy reform Agenda 2000 in the simulation year 2000. Thus, REF represents the observed situation of regional agricultural production on whose statistical data ACRE is calibrated. The scenario CAP2003 simulates the policy measures of the CAP 2003 reform in the simulation year 2015. Assumptions of increased yields and prices as well as harmonized direct payments for arable land and grassland result in an increase in income as well as in an increase of subsidy volume. In the entire model region Baden-Wuerttemberg cereal production increases while the production of fattening bulls and pigs decreases. Increases in crop production intensity result in an increase in environmental pollution. The scenario CAP2003 is used as the baseline scenario to compare the results of simulated policy scenarios which are delineated in the following paragraphs only with the most important results for the complete model region Baden-Wuerttemberg. In two subsidy reduction scenarios the simulated policy instruments aim to reduce subsidy volume by reducing Pillar 1 payments by 60% and by shifting 70% of the money from Pillar 1 to Pillar 2 respectively. Both scenarios result in the positive impact of a decrease in subsidy volume, but show a negative impact, especially an increase of abandoned land. In two energy crop scenarios the production of energy maize is simulated under the assumption that different situations in energy policy and energy markets result in different competitiveness between production of energy maize and food. In both scenarios energy crop production partially replaces cereal production, although the extent varies according to the high or small level of competitiveness between production of energy maize and food. Impacts on agricultural income and subsidies are small while increased environmental pressure is expected in the event of a significant expansion in energy crop production. Two nitrogen reduction scenarios simulate policy measures according to the water framework directive (WFD) and the OSPAR convention. The scenario according to the WFD (limitation of organic nitrogen input to a maximum of 170kg nitrogen per hectare) does not result in any impacts. In contrast, the scenario according to the OSPAR convention (reduction of nitrogen input quantities by 10%) results in a decrease in environmental pollution and is accompanied by a reduction of income and reduction of agricultural production under land abandonment. In the scenario of mandatory agri-environmental measures (AEM) it is assumed that the area with applied AEM is extended. The increase of AEM area results in a decrease in cereal production and a reduction of environmental pollution, while income decreases only slightly. Two combined scenarios simulate a mix of different policy and market situations which provoke an intensive and an extensive agricultural production. The results of these scenarios illustrate the interaction of the single policy measures. The measures of subsidy reduction have similar reducing impacts on income and subsidy volume in both scenarios. In the intensive production scenario high competitive energy crop production and a less restrictive nitrogen restriction result in a compensation effect of land abandonment by extension of energy crop area. In the extensive production scenarios, less competitive energy crop production and a high restrictive nitrogen constraint result in reduced agricultural production, increased land abandonment and reduced environmental pressure. In order to evaluate the impact of the simulated policy measures on the achievement of policy objectives the results of all scenarios are compared and ranked according to their impact on the policy objectives. The analyses of the model results show impacts of policy measures which are likely to be expected. However, the analyses at NUTS3 as well as farm types' level reveal that the impacts of the policy measures can be regionally quite different. Thus the detailed regional model results clearly show that (and where) the implementation of agricultural policy measures requires a regional specific evaluation and monitoring. In order to discuss the study with regard to the methods applied and the outcome, a final strengths and weaknesses analysis was conducted. The analysis highlights the strengths of the study (e.g. the model validation, the regional analysis of different policy scenarios, the possibility of cooperation with regional stakeholders). The validation and the results of the study also show that ACRE is a suitable tool for regional agricultural policy analysis and policy decision support. Supplementary work could help to overcome single shortcomings and caveats and to further develop the model. However, ACRE can already be used now as a useful tool for the regional agricultural policy analysis of the CAP in Baden-Wuerttemberg.
Akzeptanz, Status quo und Entwicklung der Digitalisierung entlang der genossenschaftlichen agro-food Wertschöpfungskette
(2022) Munz, Jana; Doluschitz, Reiner
Within the first subject area (I. Status quo and development of digitalization in German agriculture) in one publication presented in this dissertation, the model of Porter and Heppelmann (2014) was taken up and further developed to empirically capture the status quo of digitization in German agriculture. Using a cluster analysis, the farmers participating in the survey could be assigned to two specific development stages. 58.2 % of the respondents were assigned to the second development stage of "users of smart products". 41.8 % of the respondents could be classified as "users of smart, connected products", among whom the use of complex systems that connect individual mechanical and electrical components are particularly widespread. Thus, it could be determined that German farms have not yet reached the level of "smart farming" and also not the level of "product systems". The nature of the use of FMIS in terms of widespread use of web-based applications, automatic digital data entry and, above all, the use of universal data standards were identified within the study as the greatest obstacles on the way to achieving "smart farming". Digitzation is also presented as a prerequisite for future economic performance and survival for cooperatives, with rural cooperatives in particular facing increasing competitive pressure due to structural change processes, ongoing transformation processes through digitization and the emergence of new competitors. According to the current state of knowledge, the topic of digitization in rural cooperatives has not been examined yet and is now, for the first time, the focus of scientific studies within the second subject area of this dissertation (II. Acceptance, status quo and development of rural cooperatives in the context of digitization). Two publications first shed light on the determinants of acceptance factors for the use of digital technologies among rural cooperatives. The first study presented here is based on the identification and analysis of acceptance factors regarding the use of internet-based information systems (IS) along the cooperative value chain of the red meat industry from the perspective of farmers or members/customers of a livestock marketing cooperative. Three benefit-generating factors regarding the expected use of internet-based IS could be identified as valid acceptance factors: the support in documentation and an obligatory exchange of data towards administrative bodies (B2A); the inter-farm data exchange between farmer and livestock marketing company/slaughterhouse (B2B); the function of integrating external data into the IS. Another study focuses on the intermediary level of German agricultural trade and commodity cooperatives from the perspective of the managing directors, with the three acceptance factors relating to the expected use of digital technologies in the business areas of procurement and logistics, customer/member management, and marketing being identified as having a beneficial effect. Personnel and financial factors as well as strategic and operational factors were identified as the greatest challenge on the way to implementing digital technologies. Opportunities arising from membership of the cooperative network therefore need to be exploited in a targeted manner to address challenges and jointly mitigate risks. Overall, it was possible to demonstrate that there is an "attitudinal acceptance" of the introduction of digital technologies at the level of primary production and the intermediate level of agricultural trade and commodity cooperatives. In the course of the analyses, the determinant of the size of the cooperative or farm could be attributed as a positive influence on the acceptance of digital technologies. The final paper presented as part of this dissertation makes a contribution with regard to identifying the status quo of digital technology adoption in agricultural trade and commodity cooperatives and derives opportunities for a digital differentiation for these cooperatives. Based on a cluster analysis, the cooperatives could be assigned to the cluster of "Basic Adopters" (n=48) and "Advanced service-oriented Adopters" (n=18). Against the backdrop of ongoing cut-throat competition and the findings obtained in the present studies, it is recommended that agricultural trade cooperatives consider an individually tailored differentiation strategy and, to this end, build up concrete digital competencies with an increased service orientation in order to adapt their business model or business processes to current industry developments.
An economic analysis of the implementation options of soil conservation policies
(2008) Schuler, Johannes; Dabbert, Stephan
The objective of this study is to analyze the economic and agricultural aspects of the implementation of soil conservation programmes and to suggest appropriate measure-instrument combinations for efficient soil conservation as a decision support for the implementation of soil conservation policies. Emphasis is given to the resource and institutional economics of soil conservation. In the empirical part, the efficiency of policy options is analysed using the example of a region in north-eastern Germany based on model calculations. After an introduction to the topic of soil functions and soil degradation definitions, the implementation concepts for soil protection measures at the international and national level are described. Based on the theoretical economic analysis of soils as a natural resource, the existing property rights, the public good characteristics of soils and the resulting externalities lead to the conclusion that market failure does exist. Therefore, the non-market coordination of soil use is justified. A cost-effectiveness analysis was derived based on the theory of ?safe-minimum-standard? for the appropriate assessment of the implementation options of soil conservation policies. A fuzzy-logic-based method, which is based on an expanded Universal Soil Loss Equation approach (USLE), was applied for the assessment of soil erosion risk in the sample region. The approach considers both the natural conditions and the characteristics of the cropping practice. The very detailed description of the cropping practices allowed for the specific assessment of erosion relevant effects. This, in combination with the high detail site descriptions provided this study with a very precise regional approach. The regional decision-support system MODAM (multi-objective decision support tool for agro-ecosystem management) was applied for the assessment of the economic and environmental impacts of different policy options. The policy scenarios examined include a CAP reform scenario with decoupled payments in accordance with the proposed conditions of the year 2013. This scenario was used as the reference scenario for the other possible scenarios of soil conservation policies. The three main scenarios for the policy options are 1) a non-spatially oriented, 2) a spatially-oriented incentive programmes for reduced tillage practices and 3) a regulation scenario that prohibits the cultivation of highly erosive crops (row crops) on erodible soils. The prohibition of row crops on highly erodible soils led both to lower on-farm costs and lower budget costs in comparison to the incentive programmes for reduced tillage. All three scenarios had comparable reduction in soil erosion. Based on the modeling results the ban on row crops on highly erodible sites is therefore the preferable option in terms of the cost-effectiveness ratio. The inclusion of transaction costs in this study helps expand the scope of policy analysis, for the total costs of a policy would be underestimated if only the budget costs for the direct payments to farmers were considered. Transaction costs understood as a cost for the (re-) definition and implementation of property rights can reach substantial amounts and reduce the total efficiency of a policy. The results of the qualitative analysis of the transaction costs of the study policy options also supported the option of row crop regulation on highly erodible soils. A model that serves as decision support for both the economic and agricultural aspects of soil conservation had been successfully developed in this study. Different policy options were analysed for a cost-effective solution of soil conservation programmes. Based on the final discussion on the involved transaction costs, the regulatory approach (a spatially-focussed ban on row crops) was shown to be the most cost-effective option with potentially lower transaction costs. The main criteria for a cost-effective policy design are high efficiency in both the agricultural measures (practices) and the spatial correlation between the programme area and the high erosion risk areas. Incentive programmes in combination with less effective agricultural practices showed a worse cost-benefit ratio for the sample area than the regulation approach, which is based on more effective agricultural practices.
Analyse bedeutender Einflussfaktoren auf die Bodenrichtwerte für landwirtschaftliche Flächen in unterschiedlichen Regionen Deutschlands im Kontext bodenmarktpolitischer Interventionen
(2018) Lehn, Friederike; Bahrs, Enno
Agricultural land is a special good. It is immobile, non-extendable and, due to its multi-dimensional services essential for human well-being. Agricultural land is also the most important production factor for farms. In Germany, farmland prices have significantly increased over the last decade. Overall, the price developement have led to discussions as to whether stronger interventions in farmland markets are necessary or not. Among others, limiting further farmland price increases is pursued. However, such interventions should be based on previous analyses of the farmland market. Hence, the overall objective of this doctoral thesis is to improve the understanding of the price formation mechanisms of German farmland prices. Chapter 2 presents three methods of determining the value of farmland (standard farmland value, market value and capitalized ground rent) and discusses their applicability as a reference value for agricultural policy in order to identify prices beyond the (real) value. Chapter 3 analyzes the farmland price determinants in Germany and Italy by the means of a spatial econometric model. The model explicitly takes spatial dependencies among neighbouring areas into account, not only in form of spatially lagged farmland prices (spatial lag model) but also in form of spatially lagged explanatory variables (spatial Durbin model). Results show that both agricultural and non-agricultural factors are important for explaining farmland prices in both countries. Differences seem to be stronger within the member states than between the countries. Chapter 4 estimates a multiple linear regression model. Based on municipal level standard farmland values for North Rhine-Westphalia in 2010, small-scale factors influencing farmland prices are identified. Slope of farmland, population density and livestock density are the most important price determinants. Chapter 5 estimates a general spatial model of standard farmland values for arable land in the federal state North Rhine-Westphalia using municipal level data in 2013. Urban sprawl and livestock production are the main price drivers. In this context, a set of German legal regulations, mainly from tax law, is presented, that additionally reinforce these price-increasing impacts. Hence, proposed farmland market interventions aiming to limit farmland price increases are thwarted by regulations of other policy areas. It is recommended to adjust these existing regulations to the objective of intervention instead of creating new regulations.Chapter 6 analyzes the standard farmland values for arable land in North Rhine-Westphalia from 2010 to 2013 by the means of a quantile regression. Heterogeneous relationships across the conditional distribution of standard farmland values are found for several covariates. Non-agricultural factors and livestock density are more pronounced at the upper tail of the conditional distribution and thus, they are price drivers particularly for conditional higher farmland prices. Chapter 7 analyzes the impact of nature conservation on standard farmland values in Rhineland-Palatinate and Thuringia by including the shares of different protected areas in a spatiotemporal regression model. Results indicate that nature conservation can influence standard farmland values, but the magnitude and direction of the effect depend on the type of protected area, the type of land use and by region. Thus, it is argued that there is not only land-use competition, but also compatibility between agricultural production and nature conservation. Chapter 8 summarizes the results of the chapters 2 to 7 and discusses them with regard to the overall research questions. The analysis of the three federal states shows that a variety of standard farmland value determinants exists and that the farmland markets of the federal states exhibit regional differences in the importance of agricultural and non-agricultural factors. The results of this doctoral thesis further reveal that the draft laws of stronger farmland market regulations so far are hardly able to lead to better market outcomes. Thus, it is recommended addressing the price-increasing factors directly, including also regulations outside the land law, to reduce the increase of farmland prices. Finally, further research needs are shown, which particularly include the identification of options for action to successfully protect agricultural land.
Analysis of the effects of abolishment of planting rights in the European Union on the wine sector in Rheinland-Pfalz, Germany
(2016) Bogonos, Mariia; Dabbert, Stephan
The production and marketing of wine in the European Union (EU) are governed by the Common Market Organization (CMO) of the EU Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). Since 1976, a crucial point of the CMO with respect to wine has been the regulation of wine production by the system of the planting rights. Consistent with the goal of increasing the competitiveness of EU wine producers on the world market, the 2008 CAP reform included the liberalization of the planting rights regime by 2018 the latest. As a result of intense discussions on the EU and EU Member states levels, the planting rights system has recently been converted into a scheme of authorizations for vine plantings, which is valid until 2030. This dissertation investigates the effects of abolishment of planting rights on the largest wine-producing region in Germany, Rheinland-Pfalz. For this purpose a comparative static regional partial net-trade equilibrium model that includes the output of a Markov chain projection was used. The model simulates the future distribution of vineyards in Rheinland-Pfalz among wine farm groups according to size classes and area type, the demand for standard and basic quality wine must in Germany and production of standard and basic quality wine must in Rheinland-Pfalz. The policy simulation model was run for scenarios of different levels of market prices of wine must, different land rental prices, restricted and liberalized planting rights, and a scheme of authorizations for vine plantings. The results revealed that the effects of liberalization of planting rights and of a scheme of authorizations for vine plantings depend on profitability of standard and basic quality wine must production. In particular, if standard and basic quality wine must production is profitable for at least one wine farm group, and planting rights are liberalized, production of standard and basic quality wine must and, respectively, acreage of vineyards in Rheinland-Pfalz will increase with respect to the demand for these two types of wine must in Germany and availability of land suitable for vine growing. If production of basic and standard quality wine must is profitable and planting rights regime is retained or converted into a scheme of authorizations for vine plantings, the acreage of vineyards in Rheinland-Pfalz might reach the maximum defined by the policy regime. In addition, newly established vineyards will be used for production of either standard or basic quality wine must depending on which type is more profitable. Movement of vineyards within the wine farm groups will take place only if at least one of the farm groups receives positive economic profits. Land for vine growing will be distributed to the farm groups which are profitable and characterized by positive growth rates in the past. The abolishment of planting rights will have minor or no effects on the wine sector in Rheinland-Pfalz, if production of basic and standard quality wine must is not profitable. Similarly, movement of vineyards within the wine farm groups will not take place, if none of the farm groups receive positive economic profits. This dissertation provided an empirical examination of the effects of restricted and liberalized planting rights, as well as a scheme of authorizations for vine plantings on the wine sector in Rheinland-Pfalz. It has also supplemented the literature on how policy reforms with regard to the limitation of agricultural production input use in order to control the output affect the agricultural production sector.
Analysis of the impact, costs and acceptance of lapwing plots as a protection measure for farmland birds in Germany
(2023) Buschmann, Christoph; Lippert, Christian
Biodiversity in the agricultural landscape is declining in the European Union (EU) including Germany. This trend is also observed for farmland bird populations that are used as an important indicator of overall species diversity. Among farmland birds, the Northern lapwing (Vanellus vanellus) is an indicator species whose population has been particularly affected. Populations suffer inter alia from frequent cultivation measures and degraded habitat quality on agriculturally used land. To improve the status of farmland bird populations, appropriate measures are called for both in the EU and on German national level in different strategy papers. The European Commission has set the concrete target to increase farmland bird populations by 30 % until 2050. Despite the high demand to plan the implementation of biodiversity strategies, literature provides little guidance for farmland birds, i. e. ex-ante modelling of how many protection measures and how much compensation are needed to achieve certain time-bound conservation targets. The thesis addresses this research gap by analysing the impact of the conservation measure ‘lapwing plot’. Lapwing plots are fallow sections within arable fields that can be used as feeding areas and - during the breeding season - provide cover for the chicks from predators. In detail, the thesis pursues three objectives: First, to project how much lapwing plot provision is required to meet specific time-bound conservation targets on a national level by using a spatially explicit population viability analysis (PVA). Second, to calculate the corresponding costs based on implementation and opportunity costs (i. e. gross margins forgone) for compensating farmers who participate in a lapwing plot agri-environmental scheme (AES). For this, the PVA is combined with an economic analysis. Third, to analyse the acceptance of a lapwing plot AES by surveying farmers with a discrete choice experiment (DCE). PVA results show that the lapwing population in Germany could decline from 70.000 breeding pairs in 2006 to 12.000 or 23.000 pairs (depending on model assumptions) in 2055 if no further conservation measures were taken and land use remained stable. To achieve the ’30 % plus conservation target’ of the EU Commission for the lapwing, 30 % or 65 % of the breeding pairs need to be protected by a lapwing plot in arable land or a comparably effective measure in grassland. The corresponding costs for protection on arable land range from on average 1.1 to 5.6 million € per year depending on model assumptions. Costs may, however, be reduced by up to 52 % with a regionally focused economic optimisation. Since AES participation is voluntary, acceptance is of crucial importance. The DCE conducted to analyse acceptance considers different design options if the lapwing plot were introduced as an AES and identifies possible drivers and inhibitors of farmers’ participation. Remarkably, those design options which ensure that the AES can be co-financed by the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (EAFRD), i. e., a participation period of five years and the nature of the relevant sanctions regime, are a particular acceptance barrier. However, so far EAFRD - as part of the EU Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) - has been the most important funding instrument for AESs. Therefore, the thesis outlines how the lack of EAFRD acceptance could be addressed in the new CAP period 2023-2027 and points out alternative funding instruments. In conclusion, the lapwing plot is - according to the PVA results - a suitable measure to meet conservation objectives, such as the ’30 % plus conservation target’ of the EU Commission, if it is implemented to a sufficient extent. However, it is questionable whether a sufficient extent of implementation can be achieved if the lapwing plot is put into practice relying on voluntary AES with the available funding instruments and limited budgets. This would require a high level of acceptance among farmers in the affected regions. Therefore, the lapwing plot needs to be combined with other conservation approaches including the expansion of protected areas and in-field measures, such as the reduced use of fertilisers and pesticides. For policy makers, it is recommended to develop combined solutions in overall strategies and perform corresponding ex-ante modelling. For such strategies the thesis provides an important basis and with the PVA a suitable expandable model.
Assessing quality and safety of food and beverage products in Albanian processing enterprises
(2012) Kapaj, Ilir; Doluschitz, Reiner
It is apparent that the consumers, for many reasons, do not have the ability to control directly the product they are purchasing. It is the FBE who have the ability to control and manage the quality and the safety of the products keeping in mind the customers? expectations of a product in terms of quality and safety. The mechanism that realizes this demand today is certification, a process that every product and system of quality and safety management in an enterprise should undergo. The management of quality and safety is concretized in the framework of a special system: as an international system for quality and safety, under the care of the special international organizations; as a national system, under the care of the respective ministries and institutions of a country; and as a system of quality and safety of a certain enterprise, established and maintained by the directorate of this enterprise. The attention in this analysis for this study is more focused on the management of products quality and safety issues at the level of the FBE. In this study, the elaboration of these issues is done in the logical sequence of the consumer, the standards and legislation, the quality and the safety of the products in the enterprise, the certification according to the standards and in the end, some general data regarding food and beverage enterprises. The changes that have occurred in the Albanian market regarding food products and beverages, especially the increase of the quantity/demand and variety, have resulted in the development of a new standard within the food and beverage industry as well as made it apparent the importance of the FBE relations with the markets and amongst other FBE as well. . Among the main features of this food and beverage paradigm is that consumers set higher expectations, especially concerning qualitative requirements, resulting in fierce competition between FBE. Such a situation imposes changes and transformations within FBE, not only progressive changes but in some aspects even revolutionary changes. The last 15 years markets a transition period within the industry as increased number of imports have transformed the internal market of food products and beverages into ?an international market?. In this market exists a continuous competition between foreign products and national products. The export of food products and beverages, although in low quantities and very spontaneous, has started to make the Albanian FBE aware of the competition with western enterprises in the foreign market ?ring?, which today is considered the global market. The agreements that the Albanian Government has signed with the WTO and EU, such as the Agreement on the Technical Barriers of Commerce with the WTO and the Stabilization-Association Agreement with the EU, to name a few, treat also the technical problems related directly to the ?pillars? of the ?Temple of quality?: standardization, metrology, accreditation and certification. It is on these ?pillars? that the restructured and reformed Albanian enterprise should be set, so that it can overcome the obstacles that are present in the global market. Albanian FBE, regardless of their current status in the markets, are making attempts and are being prepared to face the inevitable challenges that lie ahead regarding the multi-plan development that includes the economic, technical, human, managerial aspects and more importantly the Albanian mentality and culture. Even for the Albanian enterprises, the purpose of their establishment, development, and existence is and always will be for the profit. The significance of profit and the need for it to constantly be increasing and improving is closely related to the investment made from the enterprise, but with different attitudes. To be specific, in the earlier stages of enterprise development, short term investment is often implemented supported by the slogan, ?I am investing today so I gain the profit still today?; whereas in the later stages of development where there exists the competitive market enterprises follow the slogan, ?I am investing today so that I gain the profit tomorrow or the day after tomorrow?. This slogan makes the enterprise think and work foremost for the long-term investment, which is an investment that provides a more sustainable profit and strategic approach for survival in the market. Profit is the indicator of long-term investments. It is one of the most important indicators through which FBE can be evaluated regarding the economic-technical-human-managerial level of the enterprises. In order to establish and to put into play the certification system, some requirements by the consumer side are needed (i.e., legislation, ministries, different organizations), etc., but also from the enterprises side. Regardless, the level that is achieved it is important to define the indicator, through which is measured the quality and safety level in an enterprise, in an industrial sector, and even in a state; today, this indicator is the certification indicator. As stated above, besides the issues related to quality for food and beverage products, there are also the safety-related problems to consider. The latter are of particular importance and are related with the so-called ?consumer protection? rights, as they represent the potential risks or harm to consumers health in using and consuming the products produced by the FBE in the processing stages. The legislation on food and beverage products quality and safety, as part of the general legislation of the Republic of Albania, is based on the respective legislation of the European Union. Intensification for this legislation to be completed is encouraged and supported mainly by the international agreement, where a special section covers the Stabilization Association Agreement. This Agreement, among others, instructs and controls the adaptation of the European Directives towards that of the European one regarding the products quality and safety. In addition, it aims to harmonize the legal acts and relevant by-acts (technical regulations, decisions, orders, and guidelines). Therefore, in order to explore the possibilities and the potential trends of the development in the field of product quality and safety, a detailed analysis of the current situation of the FBE in Albania was completed. To be more specific, the study included the assimilation of data and information gathered from face to face interviews investigating the FBE in Albania regarding product quality and safety. Albanian FBE comprised the basis of the selected sample. A sample of 112 enterprises was chosen to participate in the face to face interview, of which 106 enterprises actually completed the questionnaire. As such, the FBE sample from this study was considered to be representative of this sector of the processing industry in Albania F. The respondents of the FBE were mainly managers, owners or high level personnel of the selected food and beverage processing enterprises. A descriptive statistical analysis was used to elaborate the situation within the food and beverage industry in Albania. A model of ordinal logistic regression was used to quantify the effects of the different management factors on different quality management aspects. According to the enterprises who participated in the questionnaire, informing activities from the Ministry of Agriculture Food and Consumer Protection (MoAFCP) were weak or absent; only the inspection activity was done well. In addition, more than half of the enterprises surveyed had allocated the competencies regarding quality and safety in their own respective departments. Next, it was determined that Albanian FBE operate mostly in domestic markets (local and national) with some exceptions. Moreover, 95 percent of enterprises stated that they communicate with their customers regarding product quality and safety, representing the main source of information to FBE in this regard. Information from scientific studies is rarely used for decision making in terms of quality. The enterprises standards are widely used for compiling technical specifications for their products, while international standards are used only in some enterprises. Further determined from the study results was that almost all FBE believe that their production technology responds to the product quality and safety requirements. All FBE stated full compliance of their production activities with the requirements of Good Management Practices. In addition, more than half of the FBE lab facilities were non-existent (missing) and half of the enterprises did not even measure any characteristics of their products. Next, there seems to be no standard for the qualification of employees in terms of quality and safety but enterprises did express their willingness to invest in such trainings for their employees. Furthermore, in the majority of FBE cases, materials related to product quality and safety were provided from governmental agencies. Next, 75% of FBE have their products labeled and certified, whereas 21 of FBE also express the willingness to invest in label improvement or relabeling. Nearly 75% of FBE do not apply international quality management standards (ISO, HACCP, TQM), but they understand and support the need for applying and certifying such systems. Based on the regression analysis, it was determined that information and activities from the MoAFCP, as they relate to product quality and safety in particular, have a great impact on enterprises willingness to invest in QMS. Furthermore, FBE training of employees, focusing on selling and on product delivery and application of client technical specification, appear to all be prerequisites to entering the competitive markets. On the other hand, application of management standards and certification, qualifications of employees, increased level of information on quality standards and updated production technology, all have a significant impact on enterprises annual turnover and export/annual turnover ratio. It is recommended that the MoAFCP and all related governmental agencies, such as the Veterinary Institute, Commerce and Industry Chamber and the General Directorate of Standardization must put more effort into information sharing/awareness and communication activities in terms of food and beverage quality and safety as well as on quality management standards. More importantly, food and beverage enterprises should address the issues of alternative sources of information, improving their organizational structure, upgrading production technology, investing in trainings, investing in label improvement and product certification and application and certification of QMS, as prerequisites for increasing their overall business performance.
Behavioral economic impact on animal health surveillance system in Thailand
(2021) Kewprasopsak, Tossapond; Reiner, Doluschitz
Zoonotic diseases are a continuously significant threat to global human and livestock health (causing millions of deaths yearly). Zoonotic diseases are not only a human health threat, but also a threat to animal health and welfare. Moreover, they have a high impact on national economies and food security due to productivity and production reduction. Expanding worldwide travel and global trade increases the importance of the threat of zoonotic diseases. The increase in global meat consumption contrasts with the escalating instability of the global meat market, which is affected by the increase of livestock densities, changes in production intensity, and slaughtering systems, causing animal disease outbreaks to spread widely. This study focuses on the animal disease surveillance system in Thailand as an important world meat exporter. In 2014, the Participatory One Health Disease Detection project, or PODD was set up by the veterinary inspection authorities to test animal epidemic control systems using smartphone applications in the Chiang Mai province in northern Thailand The main objectives of this study are (i) to evaluate the economic impact of the PODD system on farmers by impact assessment (n = 177) (ii) to demonstrate the impact of monetary and non-monetary incentives on the PODD reporters by the experimental approach (n = 17), (iii) and to present the effect of the socioeconomic factors and behavioral bias on farmers animal disease reporting behavior with the logit model (n = 467). Focusing on the first objective, the results of this study concluded that there is an impact on the farmers. The technology alone cannot improve animal health security in the short-term. In the second objective, the results concluded that, in the case of the PODD reporters, the decision of using monetary incentives to motivate most of the PODD reporters has a negative impact in the long-term. Losing reporter motivation and effort reflected to the low efficiency of the digital surveillance system of PODD and no impact on farmers. Concerning In the last objective, the results concluded that the optimistic bias of farmers has a very high impact on their decision making about reporting animal diseases on their farm. Just one infected farm in the case of dairy milk farmers can spread the foot-and-mouth disease to other farms. The new digital animal health surveillance system alone is not enough to reduce the impact of animal diseases of farmers. Suitable motivation for the reports and awareness of farmers optimistic bias in animal disease reporting cannot be neglected in digital animal disease surveillance system improvement. Overall, it can be concluded that the digital animal disease surveillance system is a powerful instrument for reducing the impact of animal diseases and increasing food safety and security. However, application of this advanced technology still needs time to demonstrate the impact and to be broadly adopted by users. In terms of motivation, the monetary incentive can increase the effort of report in the short run but it comes at a high cost and has a negative impact in the long-term. While the social incentive costs less and is more effective in the long-term. Where farmers’ animal disease reporting behavior is concerned, the optimistic bias is the highest influential factor on the farmers reporting decisions, in an inverse correlation.
Behavioral economic impact on animal health surveillance system in Thailand (correct version of the dissertation)
(2021) Kewprasopsak, Tossapond
Zoonotic diseases are a continuously significant threat to global human and livestock health (causing millions of deaths yearly). Zoonotic diseases are not only a human health threat, but also a threat to animal health and welfare. Moreover, they have a high impact on national economies and food security due to productivity and production reduction. Expanding worldwide travel and global trade increases the importance of the threat of zoonotic diseases. The increase in global meat consumption contrasts with the escalating instability of the global meat market, which is affected by the increase of livestock densities, changes in production intensity, and slaughtering systems, causing animal disease outbreaks to spread widely. This study focuses on the animal disease surveillance system in Thailand as an important world meat exporter. In 2014, the Participatory One Health Disease Detection project, or PODD was set up by the veterinary inspection authorities to test animal epidemic control systems using smartphone applications in the Chiang Mai province in northern Thailand The main objectives of this study are (i) to evaluate the economic impact of the PODD system on farmers by impact assessment (n = 177) (ii) to demonstrate the impact of monetary and non-monetary incentives on the PODD reporters by the experimental approach (n = 17), (iii) and to present the effect of the socioeconomic factors and behavioral bias on farmers animal disease reporting behavior with the logit model (n = 467). Focusing on the first objective, the results of this study concluded that there is an impact on the farmers. The technology alone cannot improve animal health security in the short-term. In the second objective, the results concluded that, in the case of the PODD reporters, the decision of using monetary incentives to motivate most of the PODD reporters has a negative impact in the long-term. Losing reporter motivation and effort reflected to the low efficiency of the digital surveillance system of PODD and no impact on farmers. Concerning In the last objective, the results concluded that the optimistic bias of farmers has a very high impact on their decision making about reporting animal diseases on their farm. Just one infected farm in the case of dairy milk farmers can spread the foot-and-mouth disease to other farms. The new digital animal health surveillance system alone is not enough to reduce the impact of animal diseases of farmers. Suitable motivation for the reports and awareness of farmers optimistic bias in animal disease reporting cannot be neglected in digital animal disease surveillance system improvement. Overall, it can be concluded that the digital animal disease surveillance system is a powerful instrument for reducing the impact of animal diseases and increasing food safety and security. However, application of this advanced technology still needs time to demonstrate the impact and to be broadly adopted by users. In terms of motivation, the monetary incentive can increase the effort of report in the short run but it comes at a high cost and has a negative impact in the long-term. While the social incentive costs less and is more effective in the long-term. Where farmers animal disease reporting behavior is concerned, the optimistic bias is the highest influential factor on the farmers’ reporting decisions, in an inverse correlation.
Beiträge des Informationsmanagements zur Qualitätssicherung in der ökologischen Schweinefleischproduktion in Deutschland
(2011) Hoffmann, Christa; Doluschitz, Reiner
Fuelled by recurring food scandals in recent years, the demand for organically produced pork has also increased. In order to continue to meet the particularly high demands for organic production, the requirements for effective quality assurance concepts at all levels of the supply chain are also increasing, with increasing production volumes and the first scandals in organic pork production. The requirements for documentation associated with legal regulations and the increasing demands for quality made by the consumer present great challenges, particularly for the many small-scale farms of organic agriculture. In order to make use of the increasing breadth of available data, information must be not simply collected, but also analyzed in a targeted manner and sharing it with other members of the supply chain is vital. For these reasons, interest in operational and industry-wide management systems for quality assurance is steadily increasing, also in organic pork production. Therefore, the goal of the present study is to discover the optimization potentials for information management, a central element in quality management of organic pork production. The present study approaches this goal in a two-part process. First, the general strengths (e.g. high quality), weaknesses (e.g. small stock structures), opportunities (e.g. new markets) and risks (e.g. cheap import products) of organic production are identified and analyzed, using interviews with a total of 30 experts from 11 European countries. In addition, the production structures and information management are comparatively analyzed. The differences between often small-scale, rural producers and increasingly industrial operations and marketing are apparent for Germany as well. According to the interviewed experts, Germany is currently considered among the leading countries in information management, although it sometimes exhibits great potential, largely in primary production. With a focus on this sector of the supply chain, exclusively German organic pork producers will be surveyed in the second part of this study. In terms of information management, information and communication technologies appear to be well organized within the farming operations. Nevertheless, computers and internet are as yet only rarely used for operations management. Similarly, a movement towards a continuous improvement process in the context of quality management in the farms is taking place (via feedback and the introduction of measures), but deficiencies in hygiene management are also prevalent (e.g. failure to disinfect stalls). The cause study identifies the influencing factors within the framework of the factor analysis. The relationships are illustrated by the behaviour acceptance model developed in this study. The model is based on relevant theories on behaviour research, technology acceptance and benefit optimization. In the concluding comparative factor analysis, clear differences and even contrasting results were observed in the current activities between specialized and unspecialized farms, in terms of information management for quality assurance. As a result, individual needs are different for these two types of operation. The recommendations for action derived from this are, for example, advanced training and education opportunities that can be helpful in many ways including, for example, to provide the basic knowledge that is lacking in hygiene and quality management. The concluding discussion of the results brings together the findings of both parts of the study and ties them in with the relevant scientific literature, and conclusions are drawn. Hence, from the first part of the study, essential requirements for structural changes are derived. There are two possible directions for development for Germany, based on its established direct marketing and distinct organizational structures. One, an industrially and focally structured production with increasingly large stock populations and another, much smaller-scale production oriented toward direct marketing. Because the technical foundations for efficient information management in the farming operations are available, in essence the responsibility for quality assurance (e.g. through targeted education) must be encouraged across the country. Information management must be adopted as a profitable component of the agricultural activities. This study has shown that information management for quality assurance, and also above all industry-wide systems, are still in the early stages of development, implementation and use. However, there is a need for further research in other areas of the supply chain, as well as for detailed studies of this subject in other EU countries.
Betriebswirtschaftliche Analyse des Einsatzes moderner Agrartechnik in der Körnerfrüchteproduktion in Russland.
(2007) Vorontsova, Tatiana; Zeddies, Jürgen
The dissertation in hand refers to the optimisation of conventional cultivation methods by the use of resource-saving technologies in cereal production at six agricultural survey enterprises in the Region of Samara/Russia. The aim of the optimisation is to estimate the economic efficiency of the changeover from conventional to resource-saving cultivation methods as well as to evaluate the use of agricultural machinery adapted to the specific technology, and, starting from this basis, to develop practice-oriented and efficiency-increasing solutions. Agriculture is still one of the most important branches of the economy in the Region of Samara on the middle Volga. The climatic conditions are not optimal for a successful grain production, while this branch plays an important role in the region. Despite of the positive development, in grain production in the Region of Samara the production potential has not yet been completely used. During the last years a considerable reduction in the agricultural machinery stock could be noticed, mainly because of obsolescence and wastage of the agricultural machinery as well as the small number of new purchases. The equipment at the disposal of the agricultural enterprises for plant cultivation, during the years 1990 to 2002 ? if compared to the requirements in agricultural technics ? amounted to approximately 46 percent of the tractors needed and approximately 56 percent of the combine harvesters needed. This entailed that the optimal time periods were not matched which, as a consequence, led to the reduction in the yields and an extension of the area not harvested. In order to create favorable conditions for an efficient grain production and for the development of the grain market in the Region of Samara, in 1998 the programme for the "Improvement of the grain production by the application of resource and accordingly watersaving cultivation methods 1998-2002" was starting to be implemented. The changeover from conventional cultivation methods to the use of resource-saving methods including modern and efficient agricultural technics represents a big challenge especially for medium-sized and small farms with a restricted financial potential. Through excluding ploughing from the soil cultivation work process as a most cost-intensive operation, as a result of the optimisation, machine costs can be reduced considerably under the system of preserving soil tillage. On average, these machine costs amount to 18.3 ?/ha with no-till cultivation, and are thus approximately 6 percent lower than with the conventional cultivation methods that were practised in the survey enterprises before. The average machine costs for direct drilling methods amount to approximately 15 ?/ha and can consequently be further reduced by about 18 percent if compared to no-till cultivation methods, and by approximately 22 percent if compared to conventional production methods. However, in the case of applying modern agricultural technics for resource-saving cultivation methods, the resulting fixed costs considerably surmount those of conventional cultivation methods. The modern agricultural machinery shows, however, a substantially higher performance potential. In the long-term, it can be assumed that the modern agricultural machines in this context are the more efficient solution. Moreover, the economic efficiency analysis of the cultivation methods? rearrangement rendered considerable advantages as to the development of labour demand and costs at the questioned agricultural enterprises. The application of resource-saving cultivation methods contributes to a noticeable decrease in labour demand. Under application of optimised cultivation methods, the labour cost is approximately 1.3 ?/ha or 60 percent lower than the total labour costs in the case of conventional cultivation methods. Although the implementation of resource-saving cultivation methods basically does not require an intensified application of fertilisers and pesticides, their aplication volume is being raised and adapted to the necessary level within the frame of the optimisation process. Under favourable weather conditions thus an increase of the yield per hectare as well as of the quality, and in the medium-term, a positive influence on the cereal production can be expected. As result of the conducted optimisation of cultivation methods and of the implementation of the recommended measures at the survey agricultural enterprises in the Region of Samara, a change in the obtained gross margin can be detained. The average gross margin decreases under no-till cultivation by approximately 24 percent and amounts to 58 ?/ha. The calculated gross margin for the direct drilling methods amounts to 61 ?/ha and is still below the amount effected under conventional cultivation methods. The calculated equilibrium points at the fact that the implementation of the optimised cultivation methods requires an increase of the hectare yield in the survey farms by 2.5 dt/ha on average. In order to reach a positive economic effect or at least the same economic efficiency as with use of conventional cultivation methods, the hectare yield should be increased to approximately 23 dt/ha or, by 12 percent. In spite of the findings resulting from the optimisation calculations that the gross margins are reduced with direct drilling as well as with no-till cultivation methods, the results in Samara Region, however, indicate a continuous increase of the economic efficiency under the condition of a long-term application of resource-saving cultivation methods in cereal production. The rearrangement of the conventional cultivation methods towards the optimised resource-saving technologies is under these conditions for the survey agricultural enterprises advantageous in a long-term view.
Betriebswirtschaftliche Optimierung des Einsatzes landwirtschaftlicher Produktionsfaktoren am Beispiel von Traktoren und chemisch-synthetischen Pflanzenschutzmitteln
(2023) Witte, Felix; Bahrs, Enno
Die deutsche Landwirtschaft befindet sich in einem Spannungsfeld aus beständigem Kostendruck und gleichzeitig steigenden gesellschaftlichen Forderungen nach einer nachhal-tigeren Bewirtschaftungsweise. Dies erfordert eine ständige Optimierung landwirtschaftlicher Produktionsfaktoren, zu denen auch der Traktoreneinsatz als wesentlicher Teil der Maschinen- bzw. Arbeitserledigungskosten sowie der Einsatz chemisch-synthetischer Pflanzenschutzmittel zählen. Die gesellschaftspolitischen Forderungen nach stärker zu reduz-ierenden Einsatzmengen und Risiken des chemisch-synthetischer Pflanzenschutzes schlagen sich in der aktuellen Gemeinsamen Agrarpolitik (GAP 2023-2027) der EU nieder. Mit den sogenannten Eco-Schemes werden finanzielle Mittel aus der ersten Säule der gemeinsamen Agrarpolitik an die Erfüllung konkreter umweltorientierter Bewirtschaftungsweisen geknüpft. Eins dieser Eco-Schemes „Bewirtschaftung von Acker- oder Dauerkulturflächen des Betriebes ohne Verwendung von chemisch-synthetischen Pflanzenschutzmitteln“ adressiert in Deutschland die Reduktion von chemisch-synthetischen Pflanzenschutzmittel. Dabei werden bis zu 130 €/ha (2023) ausgezahlt. Solche Wirtschaftsweisen ohne chemisch-synthetische Pflanzenschutzmittel gewinnen perspektivisch an Bedeutung. Der beim Einsatz chemisch-synthetischer Pflanzenschutzmittel als Produktionsfaktor erkennbare dynamische Wandel ist auch beim Traktoreneinsatz erkennbar. Jedoch weniger aus rechtlicher Perspektive, sondern der Bedeutung nach. Dabei gilt: In der Kostenstruktur landwirtschaftlicher Betriebe kommt den Maschinenkosten eine große und wachsende Rolle zu. Die bedeutendste Gruppe innerhalb der Maschinenkosten stellen Kosten für Traktoren dar. Im Gegensatz zu chemisch-synthetischen Pflanzenschutzmitteln stehen sie in keiner direkten Beziehung zum Naturalertrag. Vor dem Hintergrund von international festgestellten nicht linearen Entwertungsverläufen von Traktoren und einer jüngst auch in deutschen Kalkulationsdaten aufgenommenen stärker leistungsabhängigen Entwertung, auch unterhalb der Auslastungsschwelle, stellt sich die Frage nach daraus folgenden Optimierungspotentialen. Insbesondere könnte die Bedeutung der Beschäftigungsdegression durch einen leistungsbedingten Wertverlust zurückgehen. Diese Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit beiden Themenfeldern – chemisch-synthetischen Pflan-zenschutzmitteln und Landmaschinen am Beispiel von Traktoren – vor dem Hintergrund der betriebswirtschaftlichen Optimierung ihres Einsatzes. Sie untersucht zum einen das Entwertungsverhalten von landwirtschaftlichen Maschinen am Beispiel von Traktoren in Deutschland und welche Optimierungspotentiale sowie Empfehlungen sich daraus für landwirtschaftliche Entscheider ergeben. Zum anderen wird untersucht, welche betriebswirtschaftlichen Potentiale sich aus dem Eco-Scheme zur „Bewirtschaftung von Acker oder Dauerkulturflächen des Betriebes ohne Verwendung von chemisch-synthetischen Pflanzenschutzmitteln“ am Beispiel einjähriger Ackerkulturen ergeben. Das Entwertungsverhalten der Traktoren wird mit hedonischen Preismodellen auf Basis von Onlineinseraten untersucht. Mittels multipler-linearer Regressionen mit dem transformierten Inseratspreis als abhängiger Variable werden betriebsstunden-, motorleistungs-, fabrikats- und altersabhängige Entwertungsfunktionen geschätzt. Sie deuten an, dass ein linearer Zusammenhang das Entwertungsverhalten von Traktoren nicht vollständig korrekt beschreibt. Die Entwertung folgt einem degressiven Verlauf und unterscheidet sich zwischen den Fabrikaten und Motorleistungsklassen. Die Entwertung ist auch von den Betriebsstunden abhängig. Diese Funktio-nen werden genutzt, um die Ökonomie von Neu- und Gebrauchtkäufen im Rahmen einer Investitionsrechnung zu vergleichen und die Bedeutung des optimalen Ersatzzeitpunktes und der Auslastung zu untersuchen. Mit dem Ergebnis, dass der Gebrauchtkauf vor allem bei niedrigen Auslastungsgraden bis etwa 300 h/a rentabel ist. Bei einer hohen Auslastung von mehr als 900 h/a ist ein Neukauf vorzüglich. Das größte Optimierungspotential liegt in einer möglichst hohen Auslastung. Auch bei einer leistungsbezogenen Entwertungskomponente bleibt also die Beschäftigungsdegression entscheidend für die Optimierung von Maschinen-kosten. Der optimale Ersatzzeitpunkt ist weniger bedeutend. Von ihm kann, meist, um Jahre abgewichen werden, ohne dass die Durchschnittskosten im Modell um mehr als 1% steigen. Außerdem werden in der Arbeit vor dem Hintergrund der Inflation der Jahre 2022 und 2023 und des technischen Fortschrittes die Preissteigerungen von neuen und gebrauchten Traktoren gegenübergestellt. Letztgenannter Ansatz verwendet Quantilsregressionen und nutzt Auktionsergebnisse als Datengrundlage. Technischer Fortschritt bzw. dessen Auswirkung auf die Preissteigerung kann bei Traktoren nachgewiesen werden. Der Preisanstieg von neuen und gebrauchten Traktoren im Zuge der Inflation ist zumindest in den betrachteten Jah-ren vergleichbar. Die hedonischen Modelle wurden mit einer Befragung flankiert, bei der Preisschätzungen landwirtschaftliche Akteure mit den Modellen verglichen wurden. Die hedonischen Modelle zeigen sich in der Befragung den menschlichen Schätzungen überlegen. Allgemein sollte der Restwert am Ende der angestrebten Nutzung sorgfältig geschätzt werden. Auf diesen kann auch vor dem Hintergrund der Ergebnisse weiterhin im Sinne einer Durchschnittskostenbetrachtung linear abgeschrieben werden. Allerdings sollte die lineare Abschreibung auf eine bestimmte Anzahl von Jahren nicht initial zur Restwertbestimmung genutzt werden. Bei der betriebswirtschaftlichen Optimierung und volkswirtschaftlichen Beurteilung der angestrebten Pflanzenschutzmittel und -risikenreduktion erfolgt ein Methoden- und Empiriewechsel. Anhand einer schlagbasierten und georeferenzierten Landnutzungsmodellierung, die auf linearer Programmierung basiert, wird der Deckungsbeitrag des konventionellen Anbaus von Ackerbaukulturen unter Berücksichtigung von Restriktionen auf kommunaler Ebene maximiert. Verschiedene Preisszenarien und Förderhöhen für das erwähnte Eco-Scheme werden betrachtet. Das Niveau gewünschter Naturalproduktionsmengen und Arbeitskräfteverfügbarkeit werden variiert, um Elastizitäten der Umsetzungspotentiale aufzuzeigen. Es werden ergänzend verschiedene Pflanzenschutzindikatoren betrachtet, um Aussagen zur ökologischen Wirksamkeit bzw. veränderten Risiken von chemisch-synthetischen Pflanzenschutzmitteln und damit zum Beitrag für die Farm to Fork Strategie ableiten zu können. Demnach weißt das untersuchte Eco-Scheme bei der aktuellen Förderhöhe von 130 €/ha unter der Annahme von konstanter Arbeitskräfteverfügbarkeit und konstanter Bereitstellung von Naturalerträgen (gemessen in Getreideeinheiten) ein begrenztes Umsetzungspotential auf. Es beträgt gemäß Modell 12,8% des konventionel-len Ackerlandes in Baden-Württemberg. Legt man ein Produktpreisszenario auf dem erheblich höheren Niveau des Frühjahres 2022 zu Grunde, sind es nur 4,3%. Bei gelockerten Restriktionen für die Arbeitskräfteverfügbarkeit und die Bereitstellung von Naturalerträgen steigt das Umsetzungspotential an. Der Rückgang verschiedener Pflanzenschutzindikatoren fällt gegenüber dem Umsetzungspotential geringer aus. So geht beispielsweise die insgesamt eingesetzte Wirkstoffmasse im beschriebenen Basisfall um 4,4% zurück. Der Effekt des Eco-Scheme auf die eingesetzte Wirkstoffmasse und andere Pflanzenschutzindikatoren ist zumindest bei der aktuellen Förderhöhe gering. Die Umsetzung des Eco-Schemes kann insbesondere in Sommergetreidearten und auf ertragsschwachen Standorten rentabel sein. In Zuckerrüben und Kartoffeln kommt es bei der angestrebten Höhe der Förderung faktisch zu keinem Verzicht auf chemisch-synthetische Pflanzenschutzmittel. Eine höhere Förderung als 130 Euro/ha würde zu Mitnahmeeffekten führen und einen trade-off zwischen der Effek-tivität der Reduktion und ihrer Kosteneffizienz darstellen. Für eine Implementation pflanzenschutzmittelfreier Anbauverfahren auf landwirtschaftlichen Betrieben muss beachtet werden, dass der Arbeitskraftbedarf durch die Umsetzung steigen wird. Eine Handlungsempfehlung für die Politik ist somit nicht ausschließlich, das Prämienniveau zu erhöhen, sondern eine nach Kulturen abgestufte Förderung zu erwägen. Limitationen der vorliegenden Ergebnisse ergeben sich aus den verwendeten Daten, Annahmen und der Methodik. Onlineinserate von Traktoren stellen keine echten Verkaufsvorgänge dar. Allerdings zeigen sie enge Zusammenhänge zu Auktionsergebnissen. Beim Eco-Scheme sind insbesondere die ange-nommenen Ertragsverluste durch den Verzicht auf chemisch-synthetische Pflanzenschutz-mittel mit Unsicherheit behaftet. Das verwendete Landnutzungsmodell unterstellt einen ra-tionalen und risikoneutralen Gewinnmaximierer. Auch wenn das Modell sinnvolle Einblicke in ökonomische Aspekte und Potentiale des Pflanzenschutzmittelverzichtes liefert, kann es landwirtschaftliche Entscheider nicht vollständig abbilden, zumal die Betrachtung die Betriebsebene ausklammert. Dies zeigt sich daran, dass die reale Umsetzung des Eco-Schemes deutlich unter den vom Modell erwarteten Werten zurückbleibt. Ein Forschung-sansatz für die Zukunft ist, die Betriebsebene in die Landnutzungsmodellierung zu integrieren, um Aussagen über Landnutzungssysteme mit ganzheitlichem Verzicht auf chemisch-synthetische Pflanzenschutzmittel zu ermöglichen. Obwohl sich die Arbeit auf zwei Produ-tions- und damit Kostenfaktoren der landwirtschaftlichen Produktion beschränkt, ist die Betrachtung beider Themenfelder von nicht zu unterschätzender Bedeutung, insbesondere im Arbeitsalltag von Landwirten. Die Ergebnisse sind aber auch für politische Entscheider relevant. Dies zeigt sich gegenwärtig bei der Reduktion von chemisch-synthetischen Pflan-zenschutzmitteln.
Biogenic Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Agriculture in Europe - Quantification and Mitigation
(2002) Freibauer, Annette; Zeddies, Jürgen
This dissertation analyses relevant potential mitigation strategies of biogenic greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the agriculture of the European Union (EU) in light of the Kyoto Protocol. It identifies where important sources and mitigation potentials are located and what uncertainty, environmental ancillary effects and costs are associated with them. Literature reviews are performed and methodologies for environmental assessment and GHG accounting are further developed. On this basis, GHG emissions are quantified and reduction potentials are assessed at European level. In 1995, European agriculture emitted 0.84 ± 0.29 Tg N2O, 8.1 ± 1.9 Tg methane (CH4) and 39 Tg ± 25 carbon dioxide (CO2), which adds up to 470 ± 80 Tg CO2-equivalents or 11% of the overall anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions of the EU. The detailed methodology developed here adequately resolves regional specifics of agricultural conditions and reduces the methodological uncertainty in the estimates to half of the one in the official national inventories. European agricultural soils will at maximum sequester carbon in the order of 100 Tg a-1 CO2 over the coming years, which may also provide other environmental benefits. The biological potential of bioenergy in the EU allows to substitute for 400 to 800 Tg a-1 CO2-equivalents. From an environmental perspective, the use of perennials, especially of residues and woody biomass, is preferable to intensively grown annual crops. The biological potential for technical GHG reduction measures in EU agriculture is between 100 and 200 Tg a-1 CO2-equivalents. Promising measures promote the extensivation of arable cropping by reducing nitrogen inputs, technological innovation in animal husbandry, which is best accompanied by a further decline in animal numbers, as well as rewetting drained organic soils. Most measures will provide ancillary environmental benefits. Changing the socio-economic and political frame conditions may enhance the GHG mitigation potential.
Bürokratie in landwirtschaftlichen Betrieben : dargestellt am Beispiel von Milchviehbetrieben
(2013) Rothfuß, Kathrin; Doluschitz, Reiner
As in many sectors of the economy, state bureaucracy is regarded as an increasing und costly problem for individual agricultural businesses and for the agricultural sector as a whole. Coping with internal administration as well as the exchange of data as part of quality assurance programmes and based on contractual regulations are also growing in importance. It is no longer justifiable to question which administrative work is too time-consuming or unnecessary but rather how the inevitable bureaucracy can be dealt with as effectively as possible. The goal of this dissertation is therefore firstly to determine the administrative burden that exists for farmers and, secondly, to ascertain the factors that can affect the intensity of this burden or alleviate it. The bureaucratic burden will be ascertained in this dissertation on the basis of a subjective rating by farmers. A definition of the bureaucratic tasks to be evaluated by farmers was also needed in order to be able to define the bureaucratic burden. The criteria for this was that the tasks had to be relevant for dairy cattle farmers with arable farming in Baden-Württemberg. Furthermore, the analysed tasks had to be performed at least once per year and a certain level of work would be required for it. Quantitative and qualitative methods of empirical social research were combined to respond appropriately to the diversity of the aforementioned subject of this analysis. Dairy cattle farmers in Baden-Württemberg were surveyed in a multi-stage process. In the first step, 1,060 surveys were distributed to the participants of the milk recording. 487 farmers (46% return rate) responded to the standardised questions on the structure of their enterprise and their socio-democratic profile and rated the selected 45 bureaucratic tasks. 125 of these farmers agreed to a further interview. From these 125, 40 farmers were then selected for personal interviews based on defined criteria. These interviews were partially evaluated by qualitative methods and also include the questions contained in the subsequent telephone interviews. A further 82 farmers were surveyed by phone about their attitude towards bureaucracy. The factors that led to "very serious" bureaucratic mental burden were determined using a factor analysis and a subsequent binary logistic regression. The empirically recorded dairy cattle farms are above-average in size in terms of the number of dairy cattle and their total area. The burden felt is considerable. Almost half of those surveyed judge the burden caused by bureaucratic ("red tape") as being very significant and on average greater than other work-related challenges. Based on the rating of bureaucratic tasks, the "Gemeinsame Antrag" (application for subsidies) in first place and the recording of information concerning the use of veterinary drugs in second place are identified as being the bureaucracy that causes the most stress. Qualitative analysis of the personal interviews permits a description of ten general problem areas in dealing with bureaucracy to be identified. It becomes apparent, that difficulties arise in the majority of cases if, for example, the use of resources or the division of labour is not planned or the farmers cannot justify their processes. Within the ten tasks perceived as being most stressful, alongside general problem areas there are specific problem areas that generally explain well the volume of bureaucratic stress and burden. A factor analysis enabled this standardised statements about the farmer?s attitude towards bureaucracy to be combined into eight factors. Three of these factors affect the farmer's mental stress with bureaucracy. The factor of "Acceptance of external requests for information and design" reduces the bureaucratic stress felt and the "Lack of time" and "Lack of efficiency of statutory obligations regarding documentation" increase the bureaucratic stress and pressure felt. This dissertation clearly demonstrates which bureaucratic obligations the legislature should change to reduce stress. The procedure selected for this has proved itself. It also demonstrates that farmers should not remain passive when faced with the issue of bureaucracy but should take measures themselves to reduce the burden within their own business. Service providers and advisers are called upon to provide assistance by developing individual strategies. From a scientific point of view, this investigation provides insights into various processes in the organisation of agricultural businesses and the underlying attitude of the farmers themselves.
Costs and benefits of ammonia and particulate matter emission abatement and interactions with greenhouse gas emissions in German agriculture
(2017) Wagner, Susanne; Zeddies, Jürgen
In the past decades, agricultural and particularly livestock production have increased with population growth and increasing demand for food, especially for livestock products, at global level. This trend is expected to continue in the coming decades and may even be fortified by an increasing demand for non-food biomass in an economy based on renewable biological resources. Agriculture influences also the state of the environment. Agriculture has been associated with expansion into natural ecosystems, adversely affecting biodiversity and has a large share in the global emissions of greenhouse gases and ammonia (NH3) and in the release and formation of primary and secondary fine particulate matter (PM2.5). NH3 emissions can lead to a loss of biodiversity in nitrogen-limited terrestrial ecosystems and can form secondary PM2.5 in the atmosphere. PM2.5 emissions may affect human health by causing respiratory and cardiovascular diseases and a reduction in life expectancy. As NH3 and PM emissions partly originate from the same production activities as greenhouse gases, interactions between NH3 and PM emission abatement and greenhouse gas emissions may exist. Emissions can be reduced by technical measures or by shifts towards a diet low in animal-based food products, because plant-based food products cause fewer emissions than animal-based food products. In Germany, agriculture contributes about 95% of the total NH3 emissions and 5% to primary PM2.5 and 8% to greenhouse gas emissions. Because of the environmental impacts and subsequent governmental regulations, there is a need to reduce emissions of NH3, PM2.5 and of greenhouse gas emissions significantly. The main objective of this thesis research was to increase the understanding of the full effects of NH3 and PM emission abatement in agriculture. Particularly, it aimed to quantify and compare farmers’ costs and society’s benefits of reducing NH3 and PM emissions in agriculture in Germany while considering interactions with greenhouse gas emissions and to identify cost-efficient NH3 and PM emission abatement measures. Both technical NH3 and PM emission abatement measures and a diet shift were examined with respect to the abatement costs and the benefits in terms of avoided damage costs of impacts on human health, terrestrial biodiversity and the climate. The analysis combined agricultural emission modelling and integrated environmental impact assessment, applying the impact-pathway approach, complemented by literature analysis. The abatement potentials ranged from 2 to 45% for NH3 emissions, from 0 to 38% for PM2.5 emissions and from 0to 49% for greenhouse gas emissions. The abatement potentials of a diet shift exceeded those of technical abatement measures. All air pollutant abatement measures affected greenhouse gases, in most cases synergistically. The average abatement costs ranged from 2.7 to 25.6 EUR per kilogramme NH3 reduced, from 7.5 to 31.2 EUR per kilogramme PM2.5 reduced and 0.01 to 0.03 EUR per kilogramme greenhouse gas emissions reduced. The average benefits were 24.5 EUR per kilogramme NH3 reduced and 68.3 EUR per kilogramme PM2.5 reduced. The benefits of reduced health damage costs were higher than those of reduced biodiversity loss, resulting in higher benefits of PM2.5 reduction. The benefits of the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions were 0.09 EUR per kilogramme. In conclusion, synergies with greenhouse gas mitigation reduced the abatement costs per unit of emission type, increased the benefits and improved the cost-efficiency of air pollutant abatement measures. This finding indicates that air pollutant abatement and greenhouse gas mitigation should be analysed together and that environmental policy design should consider interactions. The abatement potentials of technical measures were limited and should be complemented by changes in food consumption patterns to meet politically agreed emission reduction targets. Besides emission reductions, diets with low consumption of animal-based food provided land for alternative uses such as food production, lignocellulosic biomass production or biodiversity conservation that have the potential to reduce pressure on land from increasing demand for food by a globally growing population or for lignocellulosic biomass in an economy based on renewable biological resources.
Discrete Choice Experimente zur Analyse des Entscheidungsverhaltens von Landwirten am Beispiel von Vorkaufsrechten für landwirtschaftliche Nutzflächen und Ertragsversicherungen
(2022) Moog, Kristina; Bahrs, Enno
Farmers in Germany are currently facing new challenges, which require operational adaptation and associated decisions. As a result of climate change, extreme weather events are occurring with increasing frequency, which can damage or even destroy agricultural harvests. For this reason, farmers are faced with the decision of whether and how they can protect their crops from damaging events and which instruments are best suited for this purpose. However, the increasing prices on the farmland market and the associated appearance of non-agricultural investors on the farmland market also mean that land can become more expensive for farmers. The possibility of privileging farmers towards investors in the form of pre-emptive rights, which is being discussed politically in this context, is an instrument for shaping the farmland market. This outlines the focus of this work, which is to examine the decision-making behaviour of farmers in connection with these exemplary current challenges and to determine what willingness there is on the part of farmers to pay or accept certain solutions for overcoming these decision-making challenges and what benefits these solutions have for farmers. Discrete choice experiments are used for this purpose, in which the farmers surveyed are confronted with (fictional) decision-making situations in which the preferred alternative is to be chosen from several alternatives. These alternatives are described by different attributes and levels, which are systematically varied over the entire experimental design. Subsequently, different models can be used to estimate the benefit of individual attributes and the willingness to pay or willingness to accept. Therefore, a discrete choice experiment was developed to investigate the decision-making behaviour of farmers when registering pre-emptive rights, to determine the benefits of individual pre-emptive rights attributes and the willingness-to-pay for these attributes. The results,show, that the majority of the farmers surveyed preferred to choose one of the two pre-emptive rights over the status quo. I.e. farmers derive a benefit from pre-emptive rights and show a willingness-to-pay for pre-emptive rights to farmland, both of which depend on the characteristics of the pre-emptive right, but also on the personal and operational situation of the respondent. Due to the complexity of the issue of pre-emptive rights, another discrete choice experiment was conducted to analyse the decision-making behaviour of the owners of farmland affected by pre-emptive rights. Based on the sample chosen, only owners of farmland who are farmers themselves were interviewed. Here, too, the aim is to estimate the benefits and the monetary willingness-to-accept for pre-emptive rights, this time on the part of the affected farmland owners. However, it also becomes clear that there is a monetary willingness-to-accept this, i.e. that a compensation payment is expected from the entitled party for the granting of pre-emptive rights. As in the previous studies, the benefit as well as the willingness-to-accept strongly depends on the char¬acteristics of the pre-emptive right and the personal and farm situation of the respondents. Finally, another discrete choice experiment was conducted among orchardists and vintners in Baden-Württemberg. The subject of the study is the decision-making behaviour of the orchardists and vintners surveyed regarding the conclusion of state-subsidised crop insurance policies to protect against damage due to extreme weather events. The creation of the discrete choice experiment is based on a pilot project introduced in 2019 by the state of Baden-Württemberg to promote crop insurance against extreme weather-related damage in orcharding and viticulture. Here, too, the majority of respondents decide to take up subsidised crop insurance and show a willingness to pay for crop insurance. This decision is influenced by the characteristics of the crop insurance, but also by the previous risk management of the surveyed farms. Summing up all the analyses carried out, it can be said that farmers face up to the challenges currently arising, deal with the possible solutions and, within the framework of discrete choice experiments, decide by majority in favour of these solutions and thus against the status quo.
Domestic and agricultural water use by rural households in the Oueme River Basin (Benin): an economic analysis using recent econometric approaches
(2009) Arouna, Aminou; Dabbert, Stephan
Improving the management of water resources as well as an efficient use of available water are particularly important to address the increasing scarcity of water and the low level of water accessibility in many developing countries. However, better water management requires an understanding of the existing pattern of water use for domestic and agricultural activities. With a view towards contributing to such knowledge, this dissertation analyzes domestic and agricultural water use by rural households in the Oueme river basin of Benin. This is done within the scope of three research articles. The specific objectives of the dissertation were: 1) to analyze determinants of domestic water use in the rainy and dry seasons; 2) to estimate households? willingness to pay for water supply improvements and analyze its determinants; and 3) to quantify the efficiency of water use for agricultural production and identify factors explaining the differences in water use efficiency among households. The analyses are built on primary data collected from a household survey administrated to a sample of 325 households in the Oueme river basin, in 2007. To analyze domestic water demand, we identified three types of households: those that use only free water sources, those that use only purchased sources and those that combine both free and purchased sources. A system of two demand equations (one equation for free water and another for purchased water) was estimated using a Seemingly Unrelated Tobit (SURT) approach. The advantage of using the SURT approach is that it is appropriate to account simultaneously for the censored nature of water demand and the correlation between the error terms of two equations. In the analysis of households? willingness to pay (WTP) for water supply improvements, particular attention was given to the distribution of WTP, which has been addressed using (arbitrary) parametric assumptions in many previous studies. To avoid distributional assumptions, the dissertation introduced a semi-nonparametric bivariate probit approach to estimate WTP. To analyze water use efficiency, the dissertation combined an input-specific Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) with a bootstrapped Tobit model. Bootstrapped Tobit takes care of the dependency problem between efficiency estimates. The analysis of water use efficiency focused on vegetable production in the dry season when water is scarce. Results showed that the average daily domestic water consumption per household during the rainy season (252 liters) is significantly higher than in the dry season (216 liters). SURT estimation results showed that water demand from purchased sources is perfectly price inelastic in the rainy season; indicating that rural households in Benin are very insensitive to changes in water price. This suggests that households are willing to pay more for water supply improvements, due not only to the necessity nature of water but also to its scarcity. Factors affecting domestic water use in the rainy season are household size and composition, education, time for fetching and accessibility to water sources. In the dry season, econometric analysis revealed that there is a positive relationship between wealth and the use of water from free and purchased sources. This result suggests that poverty reduces water use. Purchased water demand in the dry season is also perfectly price inelastic. However, a comparison of determinants of water use between seasons revealed that variables such as time for fetching water, access to water sources and wealth have differential influence on water use during the rainy and dry seasons. These results imply that policy makers must consider among other factors seasonal variation of the determinants of water use. The results of this dissertation provided the first evidence that, in rural Benin, households wanting to improve water supplies are willing to pay more than existing water prices. Households are willing to pay over one and a half times the present average water price. Furthermore, results revealed that estimated WTP would generate substantial revenue from the community, which can lead to significant reductions in subsidies. The supply of safe and adequate water based on estimated WTP will reinforce both the participation of the rural population in water supply management and the sustainability of water facilities. A related policy is that a demand-side management approach can be successfully implemented in rural areas for water supply improvements and sustainability. The important determinants of WTP for water supply improvements were education, age of household head, wealth, queue time at existing water sources and preferred improvements. The policy implication of these findings is that a combination of socio-economic factors affecting WTP, and a demand-side management approach, are likely to improve the sustainability of water projects in rural areas of Benin. Average water use efficiencies were 0.38 and 0.50 under constant and variable returns to scale specification, respectively. This implies that if vegetable farmers in the study area become more efficient in water use, significant amounts of water could be saved and made available for dry season farming land expansion. In addition, many farmers operated at an increasing return to scale (average scale efficiency is 0.70), revealing that most farms should be larger than they currently are to produce efficiently. Water use efficiency in vegetable production was determined by market access, land fragmentation, extension service, ratio of children to adults, water expenditure, water sources, off-farm income and wealth. Results suggest that policy makers should focus on improving farmers? access to input and output markets as well as their access to technical information and training through extension service or NGOs. The findings also showed that households paying for irrigation water or systems are more efficient in water use. However, any price policy should be combined with other policy options such as training and development of improved irrigation techniques adapted to socio-economic conditions of farmers. Overall, various socio-economic characteristic of households and institutional factors are found to explain water use for both domestic and agricultural activities. These factors must be carefully considered for the design and implementation of water management programs that can lead to sustainable accessibility to water. Although the research focuses on Benin, most of the conclusions and policy implications are relevant and could be applicable to many developing countries with similar socio-economics conditions. The dissertation also applies and extends recent econometric approaches that may be used for empirical studies on water management policy in developing countries.
Economic analysis and policy implications of wastewater use in agriculture in the central region of Ethiopia
(2008) Weldesilassie, Alebel Bayrau; Dabbert, Stephan
The general objective of this study was to analyze the impact of wastewater use in agriculture. It mainly focused on three aspects of wastewater use for irrigation and their policy implications: impact on crop production and productivity; its impact on the health of farmers; and the value attached to its safe use for irrigation. The main objectives of the study were, therefore, 1) to define the farming system of wastewater farmers and to analyze the impact of wastewater on crop productivity; 2) to analyze the prevalence of the actual health risks to farmers and estimate the health costs associated with the use of wastewater in irrigation; and 3) to estimate the farmer?s willingness to pay for improved or safe use of wastewater for crop production. This study used mainly primary data collected from a household survey conducted on 415 wastewater and freshwater farm households operating irrigated agricultural activities within and around Addis Ababa, a central region of Ethiopia. A Cobb Douglas production function is specified to analyze the impact of wastewater on crop productivity. The production function was estimated using a Censored Least Absolute Deviation (CLAD) econometric model. To analyze the health impact of wastewater, the probability of illness was estimated based on the theory of the utility maximizing behavior of households subject to the conventional farm household production model modified by adding a health production function. The economic value of safe use of wastewater is estimated from data obtained from a contingent valuation survey administered by in-person interviews. A dichotomous choice model is used to elicit the farmers? willingness to pay. Bivariate probit and interval regression models are used to analyze the factors determining the farmers? willingness to pay for safe use of wastewater for crop production. The study shows that the livelihoods of wastewater farm households depend on the wastewater farm. Income from a wastewater farm accounts for 62% of total annual household income, ranging from 27% to 97%. About 61% of the vegetable market of Addis Ababa, the capital city of Ethiopia with more than five million people, is produced from the wastewater farms. Leafy vegetables, which are eaten raw, are mainly produced in less polluted wastewater farms and root vegetables are produced in more polluted wastewater farms. The study revealed that wastewater farm households use significantly less doses of chemical fertilizer compared to the freshwater irrigators. However, they spend three times more on seed and five times more on farm labor. Net farm return per hectare of plots irrigated with wastewater is significantly higher than for plots irrigated with freshwater. The results also indicate that the predicted median output value per hectare is significantly higher in wastewater irrigated plots compared to plots irrigated with freshwater. The CLAD estimation result shows that higher productivity of wastewater plots is explained by investments in inputs (organic fertilizer, improved seed and agricultural extension services), ownership of plots and levels of pollution of the irrigation water. The overall effect of wastewater on crop productivity is negative and insignificant (compared to freshwater). Plots irrigated with less polluted wastewater are more productive than plots irrigated with more polluted wastewater. The implication of the result is that even if wastewater is a reliable source of irrigation water and contains essential plant nutrients such as NPK, the nutrient content exceeds the recommended level of the plant requirement (e.g. nitrogen) or it contains toxic elements (e.g. nickel, zinc) above the recommended limit, and thereby reduce yield. Due to unsafe wastewater irrigation systems, wastewater use in irrigation actually poses health risks to farmers. Apart from working on wastewater farms, different risk factors prevail that can cause wastewater-related diseases in the studied areas. This study shows that major risk factors causing illness are household demographic characteristics, hygienic behavior of farm families and poor access to sanitation services. Lack of awareness on health risk of wastewater as well as working without protective clothing on the farm are also important risk factors in the study area. The distribution of these risk factors varies between the wastewater and freshwater irrigation areas. The most common incidence of illness reported by farm households are intestinal infection due to hookworm and Ascaris, diarrhea and skin diseases, which also varies between the two groups of farmers as well as within the different areas of wastewater. The findings of this study show that the prevalence of illness is not only significantly higher in farmers working on wastewater farms compared to freshwater irrigators, but is also significantly higher in wastewater areas where the pollution level is higher. The probability of being sick with an intestinal illness is 15% higher for wastewater farmers than for freshwater farmers. Use of protective clothing during farm work and awareness of health risks in working on wastewater farms significantly reduce illness prevalence. In addition, hygienic behavior of farm families including eating safe raw vegetables, compound sweeping, and washing hands before a meal are important determinants of illness prevalence in wastewater irrigation areas. Therefore, use and provision of protective clothing at affordable prices, creating awareness for safe use of wastewater, and reducing the pollution level of irrigation water can significantly decrease the health risk of wastewater use in irrigation. While each of these policy interventions has a significant effect in reducing health risks, combining these measures will result in more significant reduction of health risks to farmers, and thereby maximize the benefit from the wastewater resource as a source of livelihood and vegetable supply to the residents of nearby cities. Farmers are willing to contribute money to improve the existing unsafe irrigation system. Two options were suggested by farmers to improve the existing situation: enforcing laws against polluters who discharge their wastewater without any kind of treatment, and awareness creation of safe use of wastewater for irrigation. Farmers are willing to pay for the improvement programs and there is a welfare gain to the society from safe use of wastewater for crop production. The benefit from irrigated-farming, membership to water users? association, yield value, off-farm income and working on a wastewater farm all significantly determine the farmers? probability of accepting offered bids for the improvement program. In addition to these variables, multi-purpose uses of irrigation water as well as education level determines the farmers? willingness to pay. Irrigation method has no significant effect on the farmers? willingness to pay, implying that introducing water saving and improved irrigation techniques has an important role in improving the situation without affecting the farmers? willingness to pay. Overall, this study shows that wastewater is a means of livelihood for many poor households, but the existing use of wastewater for crop production actually causes health risks both to farmers and consumers. Farmers are willing to contribute to programs designed to improve the existing situation so that it is possible to maximize the livelihood benefit at minimum health risks. However, the results do not necessarily imply that the cost of improving the situation has to be borne by the farmers only. Although the study focuses on the central region of Ethiopia, most conclusions can have a wider application in other parts of the country and in many sub-Saharan African countries where wastewater is used for irrigation.

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